Data and information

A plan is only as good as the data or information which goes into the analysis, design, and decision-making which precedes it: A negative formulation of this is the GIGO rule (garbage in - garbage out). This applies for example in planning workshops: detailed and precise information cannot normally be provided without preparation of data beforehand. Thus the need for empirical target groups analysis and institutional analysis as well as organised data relating to economic and ecological issues. Empirical analyses - often carried out by professionals (e.g. anthropologists, sociologists, economists) - complement the participatory surfacing of information in a workshop or via Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) sessions.

Decentralisation in development is a mechanism in which division of tasks and linkages between local units / efforts and the centre produce partnerships for development. Basic elements of decentralisation are deconcentration and devolution.

Strategic elements of decentralisation are: (1) discretionary funding so as to enable local level structures to set their own priorities, (2) limiting the number of local structures as a way to reduce bureaucracy, (3) capacity building at local level for planning and development (through training, recruitment, promotion, improved service conditions), (4) reducing indirect central controls which could arise as a result of the centre handing out responsibilities (e.g. promotion and professional development of local level personnel, budgetary allocations etc..).

see also Subsidiarity

Deconcentration is an element of decentralisation. The term describes the re-deployment of central government officers to the local or regional levels to manage sub-national affairs in line with central guidelines (central co-ordination through re-deployment).

Synonymous with problems related to people's lives and the various conditions for their living - past as well as present and future ones - which are unsatisfactory, difficult, insecure, unclear, not easily improved. A state of being, a quality of life which is not satisfactory to people because it falls short of their desires/expectations (i.e. satisfaction of basic needs such as nutrition, housing, health, life-expectancy, income, leisure time, etc., including environmental damage experienced). It can also be in respect of insufficient protection, care, solidarity or autonomy, identity, control of their present/future fate.

Theories developed in the 1960s and 70s (by for example A. G. Frank and Samir Amin), which hold that the economic dependence of the Third World on Western markets, rooted in colonialism, persisted even after political independence of the ex-colonies. Economic benefit which flowed back to the colonial powers during colonial times, established a pattern which is now reinforced by trade agreements and foreign investments, to produce a form of neo-imperialism.

Depreciation is the reduction of the total value on an investment item caused by one year's utilisation. For example, if the investment cost for a car is $50.000 and if the expected life span is 10 years, then the annual depreciation is $5.000.

Developed countries

A term used to describe the northern, industrialised, market-oriented, mostly Western countries; a group also variously described as the "First World". The group consists of about 38 countries, generally those with a per capita income of over $10 000 per annum.

Developing countries

A term used to describe countries generally with per capita incomes below $5 000 (but often less than $1500). These countries are also termed Third World countries, underdeveloped countries, low-income countries, or the South (as opposed to the developed, industrialised North). They are characterised by low levels of technology, basic living standards, agricultural or extractive economies, with cheap unskilled labour and little investment capital, poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy. 70% of the world's population live in developing countries in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America.

see also Third World

Development

The process (or sequence of problem-solving processes) by which people change a negative (unsatisfactory) situation to an improved one (in which some pressing problems do not persist), or at least, prevent the situation deteriorating further. Development involves the satisfaction of basic needs of people living in a state of poverty, and when successful, results in sustainable improvement of human living conditions. It happens as a result of spontaneous, motivated individual or group efforts of members of a society. Development is always linked to norms and values. Sometimes specified as socio-economic development.

A technical term used in the development aid context. Development co-operation (DC) projects have executing agencies as their target groups. In their project planning matrix (PPM), goals and purposes are formulated as expected benefits / utilisation of the DC project's outputs and services by these executing agencies. In situations where there are no capable partners (they may be specially set up to suit the project's objectives) the DC intervention will directly interact with implementing agencies for testing or modelling situation adequate problem solutions.

Development from above / Development from below

Development from below, a spatial principle approach, originates from the theory of "self-centred" development: the objective is a long term increase in welfare, risk reduction, self determination, identity, accountability and transparency among beneficiaries. The objective should be achieved by the means of intraregional diversification and flexibility. Development from above represents the reverse, where the imperatives of government and professional planners are primary. A functional principle approach which aims to fast increase the welfare.

see Goal, Purpose, Hypothesis

Documented recommended areas of emphasis or ways of operating in development formulated by national or international development donors e.g. the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank, bilateral donors.

see also Conceptual guidelines

A service providing structure operating in the context of socio-economic development which provides outputs and services to a needs-covering extent (often after situation-adequate solutions and measures were identified and tested by a development project). Programmes have the ultimate beneficiaries as their target groups. In their planning documentation, their goal(s) and purpose(s) are formulated as expected benefits / utilisation of programme outputs on the side of the beneficiaries.
Often a programme considers all relevant aspects of development, usually a collection of projects.

A set of temporarily, geographically and sectorally limited measures, carried out by an agency (a temporary organisational unit) with predetermined objectives, designed to develop and spread innovative solutions. Projects identify and disseminate locally-adjusted solutions. Projects should neither be full scale implementors of solutions because of their limited nature in relation to the ongoing development process, nor should they merely provide advisory services because of few possibilities to develop adjusted solutions. Their function is thus innovative, and advisory, and one of linking/mediating, and of enabling / support.
Projects have implementing agencies (= self-help organisations and permanent service providers) as their target groups, and in planning documentation, namely project planning matrix (PPM), goal(s) and purpose(s) are formulated as expected benefits / utilisation of project output and services on the side of implementing agencies while always assessing what benefits this will have on the ultimate target groups. These benefits provide the justification for the project intervention.

Devolution

Devolution is an element of decentralisation describing how the central level grants lower tiers the power and resources to manage local affairs (local democracy).

see also Subsidiarity

Diagramming

A method of social research, part of the Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) tool box which uses the generation of diagrams, often in the field, to help communication and learning (for example: maps, transects, seasonal calendars, flow diagrams, cartoons). Diagrams can be roughly drawn on paper, flip charts or even scratched on the ground, their value lies in dramatically simplifying and visualising fairly complex interrelated pieces of information.

Direct observation

A method of social research, part of the Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) tool box. Direct observation involves taking a first hand look at the conditions, production practices, events, processes, relationships, people, problems etc.; in a given social context.

Diseconomies of scale

The term describes efficiency losses resulting from mass production.

see also Economies of scale

Diversification

Diversification is a strategy to reduce risks in the case of (1) insecure economic frame conditions, (2) seasonality of economic activities and (3) limited availability of resources (small farm size) or limited demand. Diversification is often a means of survival of the poor in case of limited and insecure economic opportunities. It occurs when a company branches into production of a new product without ceasing production of existing products; or a farmer undertakes production of different crops. To support diversification involves the necessity of promoting seasonal or part-time activities and avoiding encouraging risky specialisation (e.g. monoculture).

Donor(s)

Those who provide development aid in the form of funds or technical assistance.